Literature Review

Kimberly Neal Literature Review

Commented on:

1--Julie Furnish

2--Tashina Manuel

Experiential Learning:  Overview, Criticisms, & Perspectives

Kimberly Neal

Ball State University

Abstract

            This paper will provide an overview of main ideas and central themes of the Experiential Learning Theory.  It will include criticisms of the model, and an explanation of the dominant perspective to applying this theory to practice.  Four alternative perspectives for application of the theory will be explored and the implications for educators in each of the five respectively.  The ideas presented come from various educators, researchers, and scholars such as David and Alice Kolb, D. Christopher Kayes, Tara Fenwick, M.K. Smith, and others. 

Introduction

            Experiential Learning Theory is a model based on Constructivism and created by David A. Kolb and Roger Fry that describes learning as “the process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience.  Knowledge results from the combination of grasping and transforming experience.” (Kolb & Kolb, 2005).  It stands upon six propositions shared by influential 20^th century scholars who valued experience as a critical component of adult learning and development such as John Dewey, Kurt Lewin, Jean Piaget, William James, and others (Kolb & Kolb, 2005).

1.      Learning at its best is a process, and measured not strictly by outcomes.  Feedback from educators to students is an important part of this process.

2.      All learning is relearning. 

3.      Learning involves conflict, differences, and disagreements; the process of learning is movement between opposing thoughts, feelings, action, and reflection.

4.      Learning is not just cognitive.  It involves emotion, perception, and behaviors.

5.      Learning is a result of interactions between the person and the environment.

6.      Learning is the process of creating knowledge; social knowledge is constructed and reconstructed in the personal knowledge of the learner.

(Kolb & Kolb, 2005)

Kolb presents a model that is a perpetual and sequential cycle of concrete experience, observation and reflection, formation of abstract concepts, and testing the implications of those concepts in new situations (Philpott & Menter, 2014).  He also maintains that this cycle is affected by the learning style of the individual; furthermore, the preferred learning style of a person is also influenced by factors such as heredity (personality, adaptive competencies), life experiences (educational specialization, professional career), and the context or present environment that the learner finds themselves (current job).  The preferred learning style is determined by applying the Learning Style Inventory (Kolb & Kolb, 2005).  The following table shows each of the four distinct styles: Diverging, Assimilating, Converging, and Accommodating, and connects the relationship between learning style and behavioral factors.

(Kolb & Kolb, 2005)

General Themes

Constructivist Perspective

            The most popular approach to applying Kolb’s Experiential Learning Theory in adult education relies heavily on constructivism, or the idea of cognitive reflection on concrete experience.  Experiential learning can take many forms such as lifelong learning, informal learning, and self-directed learning (Fenwick, 2001).  The term experiential learning is often used in two different ways.  The first involves students gaining knowledge and skills by a direct experience related to a specific topic, and the second refers to learning through an individual’s life events (Smith, 2001; 2010).  Warner Weil and McGill proposed four “villages”, or forms of experiential learning applied in the practice of adult education that correlate with three different orientations to practice set forth later by Saddington (Fenwick, 2001):

1.      Learning from experience in order to advance educational attainment or career.

2.      Learning that encourages individuals to challenge existing educational institutions and curriculum.  This is the Progressive orientation that views education as a problem-solving tool for social reform.

3.      Learning as a tool to make students aware of socio-cultural dynamics and its effect on their lives.  This represents the Humanist orientation, which places the learner at the center of a journey of self-discovery in pursuit of improved psychological development.

4.      Learning is a catalyst to personal growth and development, and helping students become self-directed learners.  This embodies the Radical orientation that seeks to liberate individuals and society by questioning their cultural assumptions and spurring action for transformation (Fenwick, 2001).

The idea behind organizing learning in this fashion is to aid educators in determining what the desired outcome is for students in relation to the experiences constructed in the curriculum, and to help pinpoint their own personal and professional understanding of experiential learning.  All of these dimensions and villages utilize the same dominant conceptualization of experiential learning in which an individual cognitively reflects on a concrete experience independently, in order to create a new or improved understanding with the help of an educator, and move towards a goal of social progress (Fenwick, 2001).  This is only one of several perspectives on experiential learning and ways of understanding the complex nature of experience.

Criticisms of Experiential Learning Theory

            As scholars, researchers, and educators have studied and applied Kolb’s Experiential Learning Theory over the past forty years criticisms have arose that challenge several aspects of the learning cycle and his learning styles.  A common complaint regarding the theory is the lack of acknowledgement in the area of cultural and social influences on an individual’s learning.  In addition, the situation or institution in which the learner is placed can impact the abstract conceptualization phase by providing a framework in which individuals use to construct the new or improved knowledge.  This does not align with the popular perspective of an “independent learner” (Philpott & Menter, 2014).  Many agree that Kolb’s theory is very beneficial for educators as a tool to effectively engage learners in classroom activities; however, it does little to explain the process or elements of reflection itself.  The idea of a specific sequence in regards to learning can also been seen as flawed because when a person is involved in the process of reflection several processes can be happening at once, or even skipped all together (Smith, 2001; 2010).  Another criticism lies in the effectiveness of experiential learning to enact action on the part of the learner.  Often, people will assimilate a new experience with models that already exist in their development, and a true shift in paradigm is difficult to achieve (Philpott & Menter, 2014).  Some scholars such as Tennant and Jarvis point out the research base Kolb used initially was relatively small, and few studies have followed to explore the model.  Linked to this argument is the question of whether his four learning styles are valid, or how the learning styles integrate either together or with other styles such as information assimilation or memorization (Smith, 2001; 2010).  Lastly, critics use the term “restrictive learning” in reference to a criticism of Kolb’s model that suggests educators become too focused on experiential learning as a tool to reach a specific goal, when perhaps they should examine whether the goal itself is legitimate, and if experiential learning is even the right tool (Philpott & Menter, 2014).

            As educators, it is also important we acknowledge the idea of institutional barriers to experiential learning that may exist in our organizations.  Kays points out several barriers specific to the field of management education, a discipline that often uses experiential learning.  In many areas higher education has shifted to the idea of evidenced-based programs that emphasize end goals rather than the process and value the individual instead of the group.  This can create a challenge to educators who value insight and engagement as these factors are difficult to quantify when faced with a specific outcome (Kayes, 2007).  Although experiential learning is utilized extensively in management education many educators in this field struggle with validation by traditional academic circles and turn to research to enhance their professional identity.  This has resulted in a distancing of management scholars from the actual practice of management education, due to the fact that experience is difficult to measure or evaluate; furthermore it has given rise to a focus on accreditation standards and procedures (Kayes, 2007).  While these examples are particular to the field of management education, the concept of institutional barriers has the potential to reach into many disciplines.

Alternative Perspectives

            Fenwick (2001) discusses several different perspectives on the Experiential Learning Theory developed from critiques of Kolb’s model that seek to overcome some of the criticisms such as lack of situational and socio-cultural influences, psychological dimensions of learning, and a synergistic approach to experience.  The first is characterized as a Psychoanalytic perspective which takes into consideration the relationship between the individual’s outside world and the inside world of mental desires and conflicts.  Major themes include knowledge dilemmas between the conscious and unconscious mind which results in resistance to learning due to the anxiety generated by these internal debates.  The psychoanalytic perspective links learning to the multifaceted issue of desire and how it can hinder or enhance an educational experience.  It tries to determine how the different dimensions of desire can result in transformation – the ultimate goal of experiential learning.  It also defies the idea of a unified self or “ego” and instead proposes that an individual’s’ identity is split between the conscious and unconscious (Fenwick, 2001).

            The Situative perspective suggests that learning is firmly fixed in the situation a person is participating in during an experience and not a direct result of reflection or psychic conflicts, as presented by the supporters of the traditional and psychoanalytic viewpoints, respectively.  It asserts that individuals learn through participation in a community, the tools used, and the specific activity.  Fenwick uses a statement made by Wilson (1993) to express the situative perspective, “adults don’t learn from experience, they learn in it.”  Situated theorists are concerned with what constitutes meaningful participation and understand that “meaningful” derives from a combination of individual desire and the necessities of the particular community.  Knowledge is part of the process of participation, not something to be taken in and then applied to a new situation; furthermore, those who see experiential learning through this lens consider knowing to be obtained through action and often acquired outside the realm of consciousness, making reflection and memory less significant in producing knowledge (Fenwick, 2001). 

            A Critical Cultural perspective on experiential learning propose that power relations in cultural systems is the core of experience, and maintain that situated and enactivist theories do not place enough emphasis on this factor.  Individual cultures have specific authoritative representations of people that define and control behavior, limiting a person’s identity.  Fenwick (2001) points out there are hidden instruments of control embedded in various cultures referred to as cultural capital by Bourdieu.  This capital has value to people in that particular society, and in turn the value of certain knowledge is determined by the dominant opinion.  Supporters of this critical cultural perspective stress the importance of learning through social action, and that the knowledge obtained through this learning is not a personal psychological change, but rather rooted in a community of people and the connections made during the experience (Fenwick, 2001).

            Lastly, the Ecological or Enactivist perspective of experiential learning explores the connection between cognition and the environment in terms of obtaining knowledge and the simultaneous engagement of a person in a biological, psychological, and cultural context.  It is rooted in evolutionary biology, and Fenwick discusses the view that enactivists see knowledge not as a “thing” to be acquired, but something that exists within them.  They argue humans are comprised of various systems, internal and external, and learning happens when these systems interact and produce a response or change through feedback loops within and between systems.  Learning and understanding are intertwined with a person’s conduct as they explore and examine their world through experience (Fenwick, 2001). 

Implications for Practice

            Looking at the popular Constructivist perspective that works under the assumption that adults learn by reflecting on experience, there are several suggestions for educators wanting to make use of experiential learning.  Educators act as a facilitator who, rather than dispensing knowledge to learners, helps to engage them in reflecting and analyzing their experience by placing value on past experiences, and creating an environment where learners can share, examine, and compare so that links are identified and new knowledge is constructed.    Educators can instigate learning by providing an experience that invokes an emotional or physical response, and problem-based curriculum such as “adventure” activities, role-playing, or case studies.  Educators can utilize the role of a coach or mentor in order to facilitate experiential learning by providing support, encouragement, mapping priorities, asking questions, and sharing their own personal experiences.

            From a Psychoanalytic perspective educators are challenged to find an activity or text that is strong enough to evoke an emotional or powerful reaction from their adult students, and in turn, help learners identify the nature of their response and gain understanding of how and why they find themselves refusing this new knowledge.  Through dialogue, educators can help students bring those unconscious forces to the surface and give them voice even if they challenge cultural or social norms.  However, caution is advised, both in the sense that educators need to investigate their own educational contradictions and conflicts in our practice, and be cognoscente of the fact that this type of experiential learning is not a form psychoanalysis similar to therapy or counseling, but rather an opportunity to help adults deliberately engage in experimenting in and challenging their own learning.

            An implication for practice from a Situative or Participative orientation to experiential learning encourages educators to shift focus from development to meaningful participation in an authentic “real life” problem-based activity.  This type of action learning is tied to the context of the situation and is contingent upon the participation of the individuals.  Combined with critical reflection it attempts to unearth underlying assumptions and rearrange those assumptions in order to achieve the desired goal.  Value is placed on identifying how the different components of the environment interact and result in the specific actions or goals.

            The Critical Cultural perspective in practice focuses on helping both educators and adults gain a critical awareness of the contexts in which they live, and how those contexts influence the learning process.  This type of perspective is well suited for informal educational settings such as consciousness-raising groups, social movements, etc.  Educators engage people in discussions to identify their past struggles with inequity and authorities that are repressing their lives and help them seek more positive possibilities for their future. 

            Finally, the Enactivist perspective asserts that learning is a mixing of each individual’s understanding in a group that results in collective knowledge.  In practice, educators take on the role of communicator, helping participants identify what interactions are taking place both internally and externally and how they may be inhibiting new possibilities.  Then educators can help record and map these interactions so that finally they act as interpreters assisting participants in making sense of the various patterns and systems and come to a collective understanding.

Reflection

            Experiential learning is a complex and varied theory due to the complex and varied nature of experience itself.  Each of the different perspectives and approaches to practice are both insightful and valuable to adult educators and offer a sharper lens with which to examine the best method of improving or expanding their practice.  For instance, an educator planning a workplace training session on continuous improvement methods at a manufacturing facility might utilize the situational perspective in order to focus on a problem unique to that particular environment.

            In addition to the literature listed in References section, I utilized additional sources in order to expand my general understanding and knowledge of experiential learning and its applications before selecting an area to investigate for the literature review.  This was extremely beneficial in that it provided me with a deeper understanding of the subject matter as a whole, and I could apply this knowledge to discerning the unique distinctions of each perspective and their implications for practice.

References

Fenwick, T. (2001). Experiential Learning: A Theoretical Critique from Five Perspectives. Columbus: ERIC Clearninghouse on Adult, Career, and Vocational Education.

Kayes, D. C. (2007). Institutional Barriers to Experiential Learning Revisited. In R. Vince, & M. Reynold, Handbook of Experiential Learning and Management Education (pp. 417-430). Oxford: OUP Oxford.

Kolb, A., & Kolb, D. (2005, may 15). Experience Based Learning Systems, Inc. Retrieved from www.learningfromexperience.com: http://learningfromexperience.com/media/2010/08/Tech_spec_LSI.pdf

Philpott, C., & Menter, I. (2014). Theories of Professional Learning: A Critical Guide for Teacher Educators. Northwich: Critical Publishing.

Smith, M. (2001; 2010). David Kolb on Experiential Learning. Encylopedia of Informal Education.

Table

	Main Theme/Idea	Application
Idea #1	Dominant approach to experiential learning involves cognitive reflection upon concrete experience – constructivism – influenced by individual learning style	Educators create or integrate holistic “experiences” into instructional settings.  Forms can include lifelong learning, workplace learning, informal learning, self-directed learning.
Idea #2	Criticism of experiential learning as a theory	This criticism has given rise to literature by educators and researchers to look at experiential learning from new and different perspectives.
Idea #3	Institutional barriers to experiential learning	As Educators, it is important to recognize and evaluate barriers to experiential learning that exist in our institutions and organizations.
Idea #4	Psychoanalytic Perspective – illuminate desires and resistance stemming from unconscious dimensions of experiential learning	Educators help learners understand and value their personal conflicts and allow time for change.  They must examine their own “educational biographies”, and pay close attention to how they engage in this type of experiential learning.
Idea #5	Situational Perspective—emphasize connection between learner and their community of practice; rejects validity of reflection and psychological conflicts	Educator’s role is to help learners participate meaningfully in the practice of their choosing, further their understanding of how environment effects learning, focus environmental and cultural conditions to optimize learning, and use this perspective for real time problem-solving.
Idea #6	Critical Cultural Perspective – focus on how power and inequality structure experience and promote social transformation	Educators engage learners in gaining a critical awareness of one’s contexts, and understand how experience is shaped by cultural dynamics and ideologies of a particular community.
Idea #7	Ecological/Enactivist Perspective – a view of experiential learning that involves systems of human action, organizations, cultures, and nature.	Educators view learning as a mixing of individual and collective knowledge.  Educators act as communicators, story-makers, and interpreter.

Experiential Learning: A Review of Literature

Michelle Rose Hobby

Ball State University

EDAC-634

Dr. Bo Chang

Experiential Learning: A Review of Literature

Name:	Commented On:
Michelle Rose Hobby	Nichole Mann,  Nick Capozzoli

            Benjamin Franklin once said, “Tell me and I forget; Teach me and I remember; Involve me and I will learn.” This statement embodies the concept of experiential learning. Experiential learning is defined as learning by doing or learning through experience. Experiential learning allows the student to take an active role in the learning process. In addition to exposure and reflection, understanding the roles of the educator and learner are key elements in creating an educational experiential environment (Northern Illinois University, n.d.).

Experiential learning is different from typical western teacher-centered educational experiences; therefore, this concept can be difficult for students and instructors alike to become acclimated to new roles. The role of the instructor becomes that of a facilitator or guide rather than an authority figure. Learners must become more self-directed and take control to make the most of their learning experiences. There are many different options for including experiential learning activities in practice, which is great as experiential learning options allow both learners and educators to be creative in the acquisition of practical knowledge.

General Themes

This literature review will provide information an explanation of the experiential learning process (particularly exposure and reflection) and the roles of the student and educator. This information may benefit educators interested in learning more about the experiential learning design and implementation.

Experiential Learning Process

            Exposure. Experiential learning is different from traditional methods in that students directly interact with subject matter rather than just reading about it in a text or listening to a lecture from the instructor. There are many methods to incorporate this technique into curriculum.  “Experiential methods include role plays, case analysis and discussion in groups, and other exercises designed to test and build student capabilities and skills” (Klein, 2009, p. 11). Conducting field studies, studying abroad, apprenticeships, internships, work-development training, and clinical courses are examples of other experiential opportunities.

Workplace training can take place in group sessions offered both, in and outdoors offered through various companies. There are advantages and disadvantages to each type of encounter. Clements, Wagner, and Roland (1995), describe the advantages of outdoor encounters to include: active engagement, experience of real emotion, promotion of problem solving skills, and boosting of group trust. Disadvantages of the outdoor settings include: worry of safety/discrimination, inability to transfer experience to the work environment, cost, and legal liabilities. Clements et al. (1995) go on to state indoor experiential opportunities can be offered virtually anywhere and is nondiscriminatory, inexpensive, and can still evoke emotion; however, it is less engaging and may use simulation rather than real situations. When designing an experiential learning experience, one must think of the audience the course is designed for and tailor the experience to the needs of the learner.

            Reflection. Reflection is an integral component of experiential learning as it is intended to deepen the understanding of an event and allow the learner to contemplate the general context of the experience with the goal of transforming the experience into learning (Mann, 2011). Reflection can be encouraged using various methods; however, this paper will explore the use of journaling and collaborative reflection.

Journaling is one way for students to reflect upon their experience. In a qualitative study performed by Hains and Smith (2012), participating students helped develop an experiential learning agricultural course. In the process, learners chose personal journals and a course documentary as evaluation tools. “Journals showcase the depth of student experience, emotional connection, and cognitive levels obtained” (Hains & Smith, 2012, p. 365). Journals provide a more intimate understanding of the student than other more popular assessment tools.

Collaborative reflection following an experience can also be used as a tool. Meyers (2011) describes a group of graduate students teaching life skills to special needs students. Following the teaching sessions, the graduate students would meet to share the day’s events. “They self-assessed their programs while reflecting with their teammates on the effectiveness, strengths, and weaknesses of the activities and lessons they delivered to the young and adult students” (Meyers, 2011, p. 144). This thought exchange and reflection allowed the students to transform their experiences and add the use of viable techniques into their repertoire of knowledge for practice. Hugg, Mcaulay, Venturatos Lorio, and Sarpy (2013) describe their experiential learning experience as follows, “We learned new skills of inquiry and we achieved extraordinary insights. Unlike typical classroom instruction, these days yielded unsuspected knowledge- not available in textbooks- through remarkable teaching and learning experiences” (p. 252).

The Experiential Learning Student

            Experiential learning is a learner-centered approach, meaning that education is driven by the leaner’s needs (Mann, 2011). Everyone has a different motivation for learning; therefore, their preference in experiential learning experiences vary- there is not a “one size fits all mentality” for choosing what type of learning experience is best for a large group (Coker & Porter, 2015). The authors go on to write that understanding a learner’s motivation and establishing learning outcomes, followed by developing and providing a variety of experiential opportunities, will assist in offering enriching opportunities for learners to take advantage of. Hains and Smith (2012) believed their students felt “courses lacked context and did not relate to their future career” so they were motivated to participate in an experiential learning study for the opportunity to directly apply academic concepts (p. 363).

            Novice students may be uncomfortable with the self-direction required for many experiential activities; however, many students will find the experience benefitted them and was meaningful. Hains and Smith (2012) noted their students felt empowered and felt a sense of ownership of their educational experience. Clements et al. (1995) remarks on the benefits experiential learning has on problem-solving and critical thinking skills of participants and how this can be carried over into the professional environment.  

            Special Needs Students. Many students in higher education have documented disabilities. Since experiential education exceeds the boundaries of higher education and is delivered as part of non-formal education programs as well, exact numbers of students with disabilities cannot be reported; however, one should assume there will be students with special needs enrolled in experiential programs and understand how to accommodate students to provide an equal educational experience. Klein (2009) suggests that the educator should interact with the disabled student often and as soon as the disability has been brought to the educator’s attention.  “The instructor should describe in detail the goals of the course, his or her expectations for students, the nature and examples of class activities, and how he/she intends to evaluate student performance” (Klein, 2009, p. 21). The student should discuss the accommodations required should he/she decide to remain in the course. Depending on the institutional setting, a disability services department may need to be involved in this process.

The Experiential Learning Educator

            Experiential learning requires the educator to use different techniques than a teacher-centered approach. This approach entails the teacher doing “less teaching and more facilitating, encouraging, and monitoring of student process” (Meyers, 2011, p. 145). Hugg et al. (2013) describes the roles of faculty in a field study involving an eleven-day trip to Turkey with law students, “…we observed the often-intense engagement of our students with the human dimension of these issues in real life as we guided them with their daily focused inquiry. We were learning by doing, unsure where we would end up” (p. 251). Faculty should encourage reflective activities, peer collaboration, risk-taking, problem-solving, and decision making to foster construction of knowledge rather than simply supplying the learner with desired information (Meyers, 2011).

            Training individuals interacting with experiential learners may require the need of a preceptor. A preceptor is a professional within a field who helps provide the learner with enriching opportunities and provides appropriate feedback. In essence, the preceptor is the liaison between the academic and field environment. Preceptors should receive proper training to support learner-centered styles. Per Vos and Trewet (2012), preceptors who receive adequate training are more confident in clarifying expectations, evaluating knowledge, and fostering critical thinking skills. The researchers developed various preceptor training activities: web-based, print, events, and one-on-one development opportunities. Then they asked students to evaluate the preceptor before and after the preceptor received training. Researchers found that many preceptors ranked as “fair” or “poor” by students were ranked as “good” after training (Vos & Trewet, 2012).

Implications

Experiential learning activities can be implemented into educational practice in a variety of methods. Perhaps easing into an activity (such as role play or simulation) is easier on both the practitioner and learner if either party is trying to transition from a traditional, teacher-centered approach. The educator should determine the needs of the student, desired outcomes, and motivations of the learner when choosing experiential opportunities. Special care should be taken to ensure learning outcomes can be accessible by al students, including those with special needs. Surveying potential students to determine their motivations, educational needs, and perceived learning outcomes allows for an opportunity for the educator to develop curriculum with input from stakeholders. The educator may then consult with literature, other professionals, and their institution to propose beneficial experiential learning opportunities.

Once methods and outcomes have been developed, assessment tools are necessary for most courses to evaluate learning. Narrative, reflective measures can allow the educator to better understand the student’s learning than other tools, such as a multiple-choice test. Journaling can be used as a tool to document and evaluate a course, in addition to fostering a student’s self-reflection of an experience. Encouraging collaborative reflection sets learners up for an experience as they can discuss experiences, problem-solve, and work as a team. Having an educator present during the collaborative reflection to guide and facilitate discussion allows the opportunity for the educator to determine participation levels of individuals while maintaining a learner-centered environment (for example, the educator is present, but does not lead the reflection). Finally, the educator needs to understand his or her role in fostering a successful experiential education experience. Learning how to transition from a traditional teacher-centered approach to a learner-centered approach can be difficult for some educators in the beginning, but will hopefully result in a rewarding experience for all parties involved. Involved preceptors need to be properly trained on how to enrich a leaner’s educational experience. Just as designing an experiential learning experience requires research, research should be performed to determine the most effective way to provide training to experiential learning preceptors.

Reflection

For me, one of the most significant parts of this assignment was reading more qualitative work. I naturally prefer to read and review quantitative studies because I like concrete numbers and the methodology associated with quantitative work. Experiential learning is not necessarily something that can be easily quantified, but I enjoyed the narratives included in the qualitative studies immensely.

I started the process of assignment completion by performing initial research using databases. After reading several abstracts and articles, I chose publications for the framework of the assignment and began to envision the flow of the paper. Next I formulated my word processing document to include the information and tables laid out in the course syllabus. I determined how the publications fit into my outline and began writing. I did go back and add more publications to supplement my original pieces. Finally, I proofed the paper to look for any errors. 

My advice is to be sure to start the assignment in plenty of time to give it the attention it requires. I prefer to make a list and create a layout of the tasks I need to complete with a timeline. This worked well for the assignment in my opinion.

Table

Table. Summary of the Literature Review.

Main themes/ideas in the literature.	Application of the main ideas in practice.
There are many ways to incorporate experiential learning into a curriculum.	Explore a variety of methods and incorporate techniques based on the learner, content, and desired outcomes.
Reflection is an important step in transforming an experience into a learning event.	Journaling and collaborative reflection are literature-proven methods to foster reflection and provide a method of assessment.
The learner is the top priority in the experiential approach; the needs of students need to be considered when designing a program.	Survey motivations of students. Understand desired learning outcomes. Offer a variety of methods to meet needs of individual learners.
The educator’s role changes from traditional roles with the experiential approach. All educating learners should be properly trained to foster the learning experience.	Learn about characteristics/actions needed to successfully teach an experiential course. Provide proper training to other professionals educating learners.

References

Clements, C., Wagner, R. J., & Roland, C. C. (1995). The ins and outs of experiential training.

Training and Development, 49(2), 52+. Retrieved from: http://library.columbiastate.edu:2094/ps/i.do?p=ITOF&sw=w&u=tel_a_columbia&v=2.1

&id=GALE%7CA16662114&it=r&asid=c4c68e6c52c7b7a21156a19ad24da9c9

Coker, J. S. & Porter, D. J. (2015). Maximizing experiential learning for student success.

Change, 47(1), 66-72. doi:10.1080/00091383.2015.996101

Hains, B. J. & Smith, B. (2012). Student-centered course design: Empowering students to

            become self-directed learners. Journals of Experiential Education, 35(2), 357-374.

            doi: 10.5193/JEE35.2.357

Hugg, P. R., Mcaulay, J. J., Venturatos Lorio, K. & Sarpy, L. (2013). Experiential teaching on

            steroids: Unexpected pedagogical discoveries. Loyola Journal of Public Interest Law, 15,

195-252. Retrieved from: https://poseidon01.ssrn.com/delivery.php?ID=482106013031117030066112097094004111052032042016084026027093126022114099102030024109096023059100025126046118025079127028029067024015069044007116078083080126126112100052018084084126068086025017024012076103015101027119066026014015003069114001104088067025&EXT=pdf

Klein, G.D. (2009). Student disability and experiential education. The Journal of Effective

            Teaching, 9(3), 11-37. Retrieved from ERIC database. (EJ1092129)

Mann, K. V. (2011). Theoretical perspectives in medical education: Past experience and future

            possibilities. Medical Education, 45, 60-68. doi: 10.1111/j.l365-2923.2010.03757.x

Meyers, S. (2011). Life skills training through situated learning experiences: An alternative

            instructional model. International Journal of Special Education, 26(3), 142-149.

Northern Illinois University. (n.d.) Experiential Learning. Retrieved from:

            http://www.niu.edu/facdev/_pdf/guide/strategies/experiential_learning.pdf

Vos, S. S. & Trewet, C. B. (2012). A comprehensive approach to preceptor development.

American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education, 76(3). Retrieved from: http:www.ajpe.org/

          

Experiential Education Literature Review

Spring 2017, EDAC 634

Katie Ross

February 12, 2017

I commented on the following blogs: Dee Chambers and Carrie Reisner

Introduction

According to the Association for Experiential Education, “Experiential education is a philosophy and methodology in which educators purposely engage learners in direct experience and focused reflection in order to increase knowledge, develop skills and clarify values” (Smith, Knapp, Seaman, & Pace, 2011, p. 2).  Many adult educators view experience as one of the greatest tools available to adult learners.  For example, in Learning in Adulthood, quotes of Lindeman, Kolb, and Knowles all express positive opinions of using experience in learning (Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007).  Experiential learning occurs in many diverse settings.  It can involve recreation, adventures, experiments, or play (Beard & Wilson, 2002).  The settings can include both formal and informal learning opportunities.

Experiential Education Settings

Workplace	School	Community
Training	Study Abroad	Service Learning
Internship	Undergraduate Research	Community Based Research
	Cooperative Education	Environmental Learning

There are many differences found throughout the different theoretical orientations of experiential education.  However, they also have many things in common. According to the literature, there are several key components that are needed in order to achieve successful learning in experiential education.  The different orientations address these in different ways, however there are many common themes.  First, the learner needs to be given responsibility for his or her own learning process.  Second, learning should be a natural consequence of the activity.  And finally, students should be involved in a process of reflection.

General Themes

In all theories of experiential education, the learner needs to take responsibility for their own learning.  In Learning in Adulthood, a concept written by Kolb expresses this theme.  A learner needs “an openness and willingness to involve oneself in new experiences” (Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007, p.164).  Anyone wishing to get the most out of an experience has to be willing to be an active participant and not simply an observer.  This concept also allows students to drive the experience.  They are able to decide what they are interested in learning.

An example of how students can be responsible for their own learning can be seen in the “Play for Peace” program.  This is a violence prevention program in Guatemala, which teaches children to be leaders in their community. The youth are the leaders in this program, but are also the learners.  They are responsible for leading young children in activities that enhance cooperation, and learn from the experience.  The youth build skills in leadership, communication, and problem solving.  They need to be open to a different mindset and actively participate in planning the activities to benefit from the program.  It increases their self-esteem and helps them to be more goal-orientated.  The result is that these children are less likely to turn to violence (Gough, Armas, & Dolcino, 2016). 

Experiential programs should allow students to learn from the natural consequences of the activity.  As stated by Laura Joplin, “not all learning is planned” (Joplin, 1995, p. 15).  By leaving some of the aspects of the activity open, the students are able to problem solve.  Also, allowing for successes and failures.  If the basics of the activity are planned, but are put in a situation where there are many variables, many different outcomes can occur.  An example of this can be seen in the outdoor adventure education programs (Asfeldt & Beames, 2017). Nature in general is full of unknowns.  There can be issues with weather and wild animals, among many other things.  Morton Asfeldt tells a story about a wolf encounter on a trip, which had a great and profound impact on a student.  Through this unexpected and unplanned encounter, the student had a learning experience that would not have been possible in a structured environment.  “Trust the journey to present opportunities for learning” (Asfeldt & Beames, 2017, p. 73).

And finally, reflection is a critical step in the process of experiential learning.  The process by which this reflection takes place varies between the different theories.  It can include independent reflection in the form of writing papers, journaling, or meditating.  This is emphasized in the constructive theory.  The situative theory focuses on group reflection by encouraging the use of a “community of practice.”  This could include group discussions, presentations, or a group project.  Regardless of the type of reflection that occurs, it is a necessary step in the process of successful experiential learning. 

In Experiential Education: Making the Most of Learning Outside the Classroom, Donna M. Qualters delves further into the different aspects and importance of reflection.  She lists as series of steps that educators should walk their students through to assist in their reflection (Qualters, 2010).  First, what happened?  This encourages the student to tell their story.  It helps them to summaries the experience.  Then, was the experience good or bad?  Was it effective?  Finally, asking the students what they got out of the experience.  This helps students to reconsider any assumptions that they had going into the experience.  Overall, the act of reflection helps the student to examine their beliefs before the activity and how the activity affected these beliefs.

A meta-analysis was completed in 2011, which examined 62 different studies of community-learning programs.  The purpose of this analysis was to determine if students benefited from this type of learning.  Some of the areas that were considered included improvements in communication, leadership, problem solving, as well as self-esteem, moral standards, attitude towards school, and commitment to communities.  It was determined, in this analysis, that community-learning did have a positive impact in these areas.  However, some programs performed better than others.  It was found that when students who were given the opportunity to reflect after completing the activity, they were more likely to improve.  Reflection was found to help students link the activity to the idea of learning (Celio, 2011).

Implications

            The above themes have an impact on the role of the instructor in experiential education.  When designing an experiential program, the instructor should keep these ideas in mind.  Their programs should allow learners to be in charge of their own learning, allow students to learn from the natural consequences of the activity, and give students a chance to reflect on the experience.

First, design a program that allows students to take the lead in their learning.  Give them options and ask the students about their goals and reasons for participating.  The class can then focus on what is important to the students and lead to a better learning experience.  Set expectations about the role that the student will play in the activity, making sure they know that they are in charge of their learning. 

Also, make sure the activity is designed with some elements of uncertainty.  While they do not always need to go as far as the outdoor adventure education programs do, some uncertainty can lead to learning opportunities that could not have been planned for or predicted.  This can be accomplished by allowing students to be involved in the planning, as mentioned above.  Other elements of uncertainty should be allowed into the activity as well.

Another role of the educator is to facilitate reflections and discussions, as well as creating a comfortable environment for this process to take place.  In The Theory of Experiential Education, Laura Joplin defines the role of the educator as a supporter and source of feedback.  She indicates that they should provide security and care as well as demonstrate interest in the students.  The educator is also responsible for providing physical, verbal, or written feedback (Joplin, 1995). Create an environment where students feel safe and comfortable.  This will allow students to fully reflect on themselves and the experience without any fears or assumptions they came in with.  The educator should also provide a structured reflection process. Leading a group discussion and asking the students questions about the experience can accomplish this.  Another option is to give them a list of journal questions.  They are then able to take their time and reflect on elements of the activity.

Reflection

Highlights:

For me, the most significant highlight of this assignment was taking a theoretical concept and applying it to real-world practice.  The process of evaluating experiential education and then reflecting on what this implies about the practice of adult education was particularly interesting and can be easily applied to future work.

Process:

I began by reading the chapter on experiential learning in our primary textbook, Learning in Adulthood.  I then read through pertinent chapters in other textbooks on the subject.  This is where I found the common ideas from each source and used those as my general themes.  I then looked through journal articles to find how different programs have applied these ideas and what parts they found to be the most useful.

I would suggest to students just starting this project to begin reading early and access as many sources as time allows.  I did not use any new technology to research or write this paper, but I did gain analysis skills while evaluating the many available sources.

Table

	General Themes	Implications
Idea 1	The learner needs to take responsibility for their own learning 1.     Be open and willing to being involved in the experience 2.     Need to be able to sort through negative and positive feelings that arise 3.     Students should make decisions about what they learn	1.     Allow students to make choices about their learning 2.     Set expectations at the beginning of the experience 3.     Be available for support or feedback
Idea 2	Programs are designed for students to learn from natural consequences of the experience 1.     Not all learning is planned	1.     Allow for success and failure 2.     Wait until students are unable to proceed before interfering
Idea 3	There needs to be a reflective process 1.     Individual reflection through journals, papers and medication 2.     Group reflection through discussion and projects	1.     Assign some type of reflection activity 2.     Facilitate discussions 3.     Question students about the experience

References

Smith, T. E., Knapp, C. E., Seaman, J., & Pace, S. (2011). Experiential Education and Learning by Experience. Sourcebook of Experiential Education: Key Thinkers and Their Contributions (1^st ed., p. 2). New York, NY: Routledge.

Merriam, S. B., Caffarella, R. S., & Baumgartner L. M. (2007). Experience and Learning. Learning in Adulthood: A Comprehensive Guide (3rd ed., pp. 159-186). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Qualters, D. M. (2010). Making the Most of Learning Outside the Classroom. Experiential Education: Making the Most of Learning Outside the Classroom (1^st ed., pp. 95-97). New York, NY: Jossey-Bass.

Beard, C. & Wilson, J. P. (2002). The Power of Experiential Learning. Sterling, VA: Stylus Pub. Inc.

Joplin, L. (1995). On Defining Experiential Education. The Theory of Experiential Education (3^rd ed., pp. 15-19). Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt.

Gass, M., Gough, S., Armas, A., & Dolcino, C. (2016). Play for Peace as a Violence Prevention Model. Journal Of Experiential Education, 39(4), 412-426. Retrieved from the Academic Search Premier database.

Celio, C. I., Durlak, J., & Dymnicki, A. (2011). A Meta-analysis of the Impact of Service-Learning on Students.  Journal of Experiential Education, 34(2), 164-181. Retrieved from the Academic Search Premier database.

Asfeldt, M., & Beames, S. (2017). Trusting the Journey: Embracing the Unpredictable and Difficult to Measure Nature of Wilderness Educational Expeditions. Journal of Experiential Education, 40(1), 72-86.  Retrieved from the Academic Search Premier database.

  

Experiential Learning- Literature Overview

Carlos Guerrero

EDAC 634 Spring 2017

Professor Bo Chang

February 11 2017

Student	Commented on:
Carlos Guerrero	Nichole Mann, Tashina Manuel

Introduction

Experiential learning is a method of learning that suggests students continue to gain knowledge from past experiences and utilize applications from other disciplines. There are various models that are promoted to explain how the facilitator can integrate the knowledge learned in the classroom into practice. However, there is not a sole answer that defines how the educator can accomplish this task. Rather, learning designs will “differ depending on the lens through which [the educators] view experiential learning” (Merriam, 2007). The purpose of the literature review is to exam four models of learning that have advanced John Dewey’s and David Kolb’s model of experiential learning: reflective practice, situated cognition, cognitive apprenticeships, and anchored instruction.

General Themes

Reflective Practice

Healthcare, engineering, and finance industries rely on a standard of practice, or a professional model that defines what works best for the occupation and their respective clients. This means that they have tested educational designs with trial and error, and have came up with a set of beliefs and values that define the profession. In some ways, “reflective practice is most often associated with professional practice” (Merriam, 2007). In order for a learner to develop their own practice model of learning, Moon (2004 pg 161-163) suggests techniques to promote reflective learning:

• Pause after posing a rhetorical question and allow the learner to process the new information.
• Ask learners to draw out concept maps. The maps of the teacher and student may demonstrate differences in thinking and therefore on material on which to reflect.
• Encourage reflection during problem solving. A 1986 study by Selfe and Arbabi found that learners who had accomplished problem solving activities in engineering with reflective accounts of their progress were more successful at solving subsequent problems.

There are two methods of how the learner can process information while utilizing a reflective practice: reflection-on-action and reflection-in-action. Reflection-on-action involves thinking through a situation after it has happened (Merriam 2007, p 174). An example of this teaching method is role playing a DUI arrest in the policy academy classroom and then showing an instructional video of a DUI arrest that became fatal. The police cadets view the video and then have a debriefing to discuss scenarios that could have prevented the fatality. Post-event debriefings are very common in the hospital setting. In a medical journal, Fanning et al states that   “debriefing represents facilitated or guided reflection in the cycle of experiential learning” (2007 pgs 115-125). In one of the hospital debriefings, the clinicians watch a video of themselves role playing and actively participating in a mock neonatal or adult resuscitation. The certified instructor conducts the debrief meeting and asks reflective questions, such as “How could we improve the process?” or “Could the survival rate improve if we had approached it differently?”.

Reflection-in-action refers to learning while in a situation. Some of the common phrases that Merriam (2007) described as reflection-in-action are “thinking on your feet” or “keeping your wits about you” (pg 176). An example of “thinking on your feet” would be a political science professor lecturing on presidential impeachment. Instead of discussing the justification of impeachment, he decides on that Monday (the surprise) to show video clips of former President Clinton’s impeachment hearing, and then share a dialogue with the class. This type of learning can benefit both the educator and the student. A study of 15 practitioners noted that “practicing reflection-in-action drove them to analyze their own practice, which resulted an improvement in their teaching and student learning” (Giamio-Ballard, 2012 p 8).

Situated Cognition

In a situated cognition model, the learner is immersed in an environment within physical or social contexts. Merriam (2007) proposes that learning for everyday living happens only when people interact with the community, the “tools at hand”, and the activity at hand (p 178). An example of a situated learning model is a photographer leading a paid workshop on wedding photography in downtown Chicago. Instead of amateurs or enthusiasts learning from a book, the learners are immersed with others of similar interests, and the instructor serves as a guide. The instructor briefly lectures on specific camera settings and lighting techniques. Then he will provide professional models to be photographed, while using the downtown scenery and different lighting situations. The learning process changes from being concerned about memory and how we process information internally to perception and the settings in which those perceptions are made (Hansman, 2001). This model can apply for the facilitator leading professional workshops, crafting classes, or focus groups.

Cognitive Apprenticeships

Cognitive apprenticeships applies learning into authentic practices through activity and social interaction (Merriam 2007, p 180). Examples of cognitive apprenticeships are paid and unpaid internships, apprentice programs, three-year residency programs for medical students, clinicals for nursing and allied health students, and study abroad programs. Each program requires the student to have a specialized knowledge or interest, and then apply it in the workplace or volunteer setting. The goal of these types of learning environments is for the learner to move from a situative view of learning (classroom theory and case studies), and treat learners as “independent reflective constructors of knowledge” (Merriam 2007, p 181).

In several texts, the term scaffolding is used to describe a support system for learners. As the learner becomes comfortable at performing a competency, the instructor gradually withdraws his or her support. For instance, scaffolding is utilized for teaching clinical skills to nursing students.  “As the learner’s ability improves, direct support can be gradually removed, or faded out” (Wooley, et al. 2007, p 73-79).

Anchored Instruction

The anchored instruction theory is targeted for novice learners that wish to challenge their skill set with real world problems (the anchors) that are encountered at the expert level. The anchors should refrain for a lecture format. Rather, the complex problems should be presented in a format that will capture, or anchor the audience, such as a narrative or story.

The Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt defines complex problems explored over time as macro contexts (Merriam 2007, p 183). The macro context can be presented on many forms, such as audio-video platforms (VHS, DVD, Interactive software, eLearning, or virtual reality) or by careful preparation of case studies by the learner. The goal of this design is to have learners grow quickly from novices to a relative expert level in an environment from multiple points of view (Merriam 2007, p 183).

Implications

There are practical implications that practitioners can utilize to engage learners into critical thinking while utilizing their experience:

• The learner should develop a portfolio of their experiences. This can be in the format of a journal, blog, notebook, or maintain a collection of peer reviews and assessments. Learners can reflect back on their experiences and continue to set personal and professional goals. This can be done with an employer by adding personal goals as a requirement for his or her annual peer review.
• Encourage continued education outside the classroom and place of employment.  Learners should be able to attend workshops and seminars in their discipline. Upon their return, they can briefly share what he or she learned in writing or a brief memo.
• Utilize a support system (or a training program) that closely mentors the employee or the student. Gradually give the student more responsibilities at he or she further advances in skill set. Encourage the learner to seek credentialing, such as a bachelor, master, or a doctorate degree. For the employee, reward them as they gain new roles and responsibilities within the company.  
• Cognitive apprenticeships can take on other forms that are different from the mainstream models, such as internships and volunteering. Social interaction can take place in the form of committees, practice councils, advocacy groups, and other small specialized forums. The practitioner can teach students specifically how to find resources to gather research material that will support the best practice for the learning environment or for an employer. Students can be encouraged to not approach a future employer with a problem. Rather, they should strive to have a solution ready on hand.

Reflection

I did not realize that there are many models of experiential learning when researching this assignment. I found it interesting that the material can be applied not only in the classroom environment, but also within an organizational environment, such as an employer or non-for-profit group. The assignment was completed by researching articles that were updated. For example, some articles during the research contained texts that were ‘outdated’ for the learning environment such as the floppy disc, or VHS.

I found similarities during the review that is applicable to teaching allied health students, such as the use of cognitive apprenticeships. In this manner, our college implements the 6-8 hours of classroom theory and 24 hours of clinical work per week.

One reflective method that I may find beneficial is the use of journal entries. Students of other health disciplines can do the same: document their clinical experience in a narrative format and briefly describe what was the most significant aspect of their patient care they learned. The challenge in this exercise, however, is for students not to violate patient privacy laws.

Table

Main ideas of Experiential Learning	Application of the main ideas into practice
Reflective practice	Learners should catalog their learning experiences via a journal, blog, or a notebook. In this manner they can reflect back on their experiences and use the skills they learned in the present.
Situated cognition	Learners should be immersed in a social or physical environment that will promote their mental capacities. Examples are workshops and field studies.
Cognitive apprenticeships	Encourage learners to seek out apprenticeships or internships that will help them apply the classroom theory into practice. Or arrange special committees can be set up to investigate a new practice from another discipline.
Anchored Instruction	This method of instruction should be delivered in an interactive format that will introduce novice learners a new way of thinking that has been utilized by experts.

References

Fanning, Ruth M. & Gaba, David M. MD. The Role of Debriefing in Simulation Based Learning. Society for Simulation in Healthcare. 2007; Vol. 2 No. 2 p 115-125.

Giamio-Ballard & Hyatt, L. M.D. Reflection in action teaching strategies used by faculty to enhance teaching and learning. Networks 2012; Vol. 15 Issue 2. p 1-11.

Hansman, C.A. (2001). Context-based Adult Learning, The new update on adult learning. In S. Merriam (pp 43-51). New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, No. 89. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.

Merriam, S.B., Caffarella, R. S., & Baumgartner, L. (2007). Learning in Adulthood: A comprehensive guide (3rd ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.

Moon, Jennifer A. A Handbook of Reflective and Experiential Learning. RoutledgeFalmer. 2004. p 161-163.

Wooley, Norman & Jarvis, Yvonne. Situated cognition and cognitive apprenticeship: A model for teaching and learning clinical skills in a technologically rich and authentic learning environment. Nurse Education Today , Volume 27 , Issue 1 , 73 - 79.